Water Quality and Pollution Control in the Rhine River Basin
This is the
| Geolocation: | 50° 26' 41.406", 7° 26' 6.2052" |
|---|---|
| Total Population | 5858,000,000 millionmillion |
| Total Area | 200,000200,000 km² 77,220 mi² km2 |
| Climate Descriptors | temperate, alpine |
| Predominent Land Use Descriptors | industrial use, mining operations |
| Important Uses of Water | Agriculture or Irrigation, Domestic/Urban Supply, Fisheries - wild, Industry - non-consumptive use |
Contents
Summary
The Rhine River is a major waterway that originates from Switzerland, and flows through France, Germany and the Netherlands to reach the North Sea; the basin itself includes 9 European countries. International cooperation on the Rhine River Basin has been ongoing since 1815 and continues today to resolve trans-boundary conflicts and manage water problems, including shipping, navigation, salt intrusion, water pollution, and flooding issues [1].
This case study focuses on the international cooperation required to prevent pollution to the Rhine River. Water quality declined during the 1850s as a result of wastes discharged into the river because of industrialization and urbanization. Although international commissions were formed to address the pollution problem, plans to improve water quality were not implemented until the 1980s. Sparked by the Sandoz Accident of 1986, the Rhine Action Program was developed to restore ecological habitats and ensure drinking water quality for over 20 million people in the Basin [2]. The Rhine Action Program has been successful in reducing phosphorus concentrations and reviving the salmon population [3]. After the Program ended in 2000, “Rhine 2020" and the EU Water Framework Directive were adopted to continue water quality control and ecological rehabilitation . The success of the program is attributed to the immense collaboration and stakeholder engagement throughout the process, and can be analyzed through the lens of the Water Diplomacy Framework.
Natural, Historic, Economic, Regional, and Political Framework
Ecological and Geographical Background
The Rhine River Basin has a watershed area of approximately 200,000 km2 (UNESCO), and encompasses nine countries in Europe: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and Switzerland [2]. The River itself is 1320 km long, in which it originates in Switzerland, and flows through France, Germany, and the Netherlands before discharging into the North Sea (Figure V-1). Historically known for its navigable waters used for shipping and industrial services, as well as supplying water for agriculture, the River is now also used to provide electricity, potable water for over 20 million people, and tourism [2]. The ecology of the basin was altered during the 1900s when pollution damaged the ecosystem and floodplains were altered to provide agricultural lands; however, ecological improvements have been made in recent years to protect the basin and revive the flora and fauna.
Social, Economic and Cultural Context
Primary Uses of the Rhine River include:
- Shipping: The Rhine River connects the port in Rotterdam of the Netherlands with the world’s largest inland port in Duisburg, Germany [2]. This waterway is heavily used for shipping and navigation by all of the basin states, and to mitigate conflicts between nations, the Central Commission for Navigation of the Rhine was established in 1815.
- Industrial Use: There are 6 industrial centers along the Rhine, which includes chemical/ coal/ steel production facilities, food industry, textiles, automobile manufacturing facilities, and refineries [3].
- Drinking water: The Rhine supplies drinking water for over 20 million people in the basin [2].
- Agriculture: “half of the surface of the Rhine watershed is used for agriculture” [3].
- Fishing: Salmon fishing was a huge economic activity until the 1950s. Salmon Commission that was established in 1885 ceased to exist in 1950 because the fish population dwindled due to water pollution.
The Problem
The Rhine River Basin spans across nine countries, and has experienced a variety of issues in the past, including navigation, pollution, high levels of salt, ecological deterioration and flooding, and some of these issues continue to exist today [1]. In particular, pollution problems in the Rhine River began during the 1850s due to the increase of agricultural/ fertilizer runoff and industrial wastes that were released into the river [2]. As industrialization progressed, more chemicals, metals and organic compounds were discharged and the accumulation of these constituents led to the decrease of fish populations. Additionally, urbanization during this period caused the basin to incur large amounts of domestic wastes. Wastewater treatment plants could not handle the growing capacity, and because the industries brought about such economic growth, policymakers did not want to impose restrictions to the amount of wastes generated by the facilities (UNESCO). Furthermore, the downstream states, especially the Netherlands, experienced high salinity in the drinking water supply from the Rhine River because of the waste salts dumped from potash mining. To exacerbate the issue, the Sandoz Accident in 1986 released toxic chemicals that affected over 400 km of the river. Sandoz, an agrochemical warehouse in Switzerland caught on fire (Figure II-3), and chemicals that leaked into the river killed many organisms and contaminated the drinking water supply for those living in the Rhine River Basin [5] [6].
Timeline of Events
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1815 | Congress of Vienna; Central Commission for Navigation of the Rhine (CCR) established to control shipping and transportation in the Rhine |
| 1855 | Salmon Commission formed to regulate and protect salmon fishing |
| 1922, 1928, 1933 | Salmon Commission held meetings to discuss decline of fish population and chloride pollution |
| 1930s to 1940s | Europe economic recession and WWII |
| 1948 | Chloride pollution was revisited by the Dutch government and presented to Salmon Commission |
| 1950 | International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) was formed to encourage transboundary cooperation and control the amount of pollution discharged into the Rhine River. Participating countries to this commission include: Germany, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. |
| 1963 | Modifications to ICPR with the Berne Treaty to include agreements on the presidency, cost of investigations, and publication. |
| 1970 | International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) was formed |
| 1976 | Chemical and Chloride Treaty |
| 1986 | Sandoz Chemical Spill |
| 1987 | Rhine Action Plan: "Salmon back into the Rhine“ |
| 1998 | Aarhus Convention (aka Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters):
(1) established the right to access to environmental information (2) encouraged public participation in the making of environmental decisions (3) connect environmental rights and human rights |
| 1999 | Convention on the Protection of the Rhine (New Rhine Treaty/ Rhine 2020): Sustainable development of the
Rhine ecosystem on the basis of a comprehensive approach, taking into consideration the natural wealth of the river. |
| 2000 | EU Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) |
| 2001 | Rhine 2020: Sustainable Development of the Rhine |
| 2002 | The International Meuse Commission (IMC) formed to enforce the EU WFD |
| 2012 | Survey 2012 |
Government, Political and Legal Context/ Attempts at Conflict Management
The deterioration of the water quality in the Rhine River due to agricultural and industrial wastes was first brought to attention by the Salmon Commission. The Salmon Commission was formed by the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany in 1885 to regulate and protect salmon fishing along the Rhine River [7]; when the salmon population was declining, the Salmon Commission was obligated by the Netherlands to discuss water quality issues and chloride pollution in drinking water during its meetings in 1922, 1928 and 1933; the Dutch were concerned because they were the downstream community that was affected by all the pollution and wastes generated from Switzerland, Germany and other upstream countries[7]. However, these issues remained unaddressed for a number of following years because upstream countries were uninterested, and because Europe experienced an economic recession that lasted through World War II. The chloride pollution was eventually revisited by the Dutch government (via the Salmon Commission) after World War II in 1948. Because the Salmon Commission was formed on the basis of regulating fishing, the pollution problem was deferred and a new commission was established to address this issue. The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) was henceforth formed in 1950 via an exchange of diplomatic letters and via facilitation with the help of the Navigation Commission [7]. The ICPR included members from Germany, France, Switzerland, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, and the European Economic Community joined the ICPR in 1976.
The ICPR was founded in 1950 to encourage trans-boundary cooperation and control the amount of pollution discharged into the Rhine River. Originally focused on research only, the French and German delegations later wanted to broaden the mandate of the ICPR, and therefore the ICPR was expanded in 1963 under the Berne Treaty to include authority for the ICPR to propose solutions for protecting the Rhine against pollution, and for preparing future agreements related to pollution control in the Rhine River. Unfortunately, the Berne Treaty did not include emission reduction goals or discussed about actions pertaining to the tributaries that carried the most pollutants [7].
Research conducted by the ICPR indicated that the French potassium mines contributed to one-third of total chlorides pollution that was affecting the water quality in the Netherlands, and Germany contributed a significant portion of the pollution too. Because the French did not regulate the salt discharges, the Dutch government recalled its ambassador from France. Eventually, an agreement on the chlorides issue was reached at the first Rhine Ministers Conference in 1972, where the Netherlands offered to contribute to the costs of storing salt, provided that France and Germany would contribute too. In the end, it was agreed that all ICPR members should contribute and the subsequent negotiations focused on the costs of storing salt. After more than four years, the Convention on the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution by Chlorides was signed in 1976. According to this convention, France would reduce chlorides emissions by 60% by 1 January 1980 [7].
Although the Chlorides Convention addressed some of the water quality issues, water pollution was still ongoing. According to Chase (2012), “From 1976 through 1986, environmental protection measures were being enacted in all of the ICPR member nations, but the Rhine continued to suffer… During the summer of 1986, officials from the Netherlands’ Ministry of Transport, Public Works, and Water Management tried to meet with their German counterparts to discuss issues surrounding the Rhine. The German officials refused to meet because of the poor relations between government officials and differing approaches to regulating pollution discharge levels in the river. Governance of the river was at an impasse.” [8] It wasn’t until the Sandoz Accident in 1986 and the political and social pressure from the media that triggered the ICPR to convene and address the water quality damages. As a result of this meeting, the Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works, and Water Management hired a private consulting group, McKinsey & Company to help ICPR develop an action plan. Based on Chase (2012), McKinsey:
- “Interviewed top water pollution experts from all of the member nations to identify which pollutants deserved the highest priority in the cleanup of the Rhine. The substances that were most frequently mentioned would form the first list of pollutants to address and ban.
- Found a symbol of restoration and improved quality of the river: they determined that the overarching goal of the plan should be to restore salmon to the river by the year 2000.
- Determined that international regulation should be minimal and informal. The plan called for non-binding reports regarding goals for cleanup of the river to be issued by the ICPR, rather than a formal treaty making process setting out the specifics of regulation.”
This action plan by McKinsey was adopted as the Rhine Action Program of 1987 and was approved unanimously by the members of the ICPR. The Rhine Action Program of 1987 had the following goals [9]:
- Guarantee drinking water
- Reduce amounts of cadmium, mercury, lead and dioxins by 50-70% by 1995
- Construction of basins to collect fire extinction water
- Ecological Rehabilitation; fish passages must be used on weirs to allow fish (i.e. salmon) to travel upstream for spawning
- Safety norms in industrial plants should be tightened.
- The riverside environment should be restored to allow the return of plants and animals typical of the Rhine.
Outcome and Current/Future Plans
The Rhine Action Program has been successful in reducing phosphorus concentrations, reviving the salmon population, and reducing the number of accidents and chemical spills in the river [3]. Approximately 40 billion Euros were spent between 1970 and 1990 for wastewater treatment plants [1]. However, nitrogen and some heavy metals and pesticides have not achieved the target levels set by the ICPR in 1987 [3], but these compounds will continue to be monitored through the new treaty (Rhine 2020).
After the Program ended in 2000, “Rhine 2020" and the EU Water Framework Directive were adopted to continue water quality control and ecological rehabilitation [3]. Convention on the Protection of the Rhine took place in 1999, and formed the basis for the “Sustainable Development of the Rhine,” also known as Rhine 2020. Switzerland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands agreed to this initiative, which means that they were willing to continue cooperation with the other countries in order to protect the Rhine River [10] Similar to the Rhine Action Program, Rhine 2020 focuses on water quality and ecosystem improvement, but also extends to flood prevention and groundwater protection.
While the Rhine Action Program did not involve all stakeholders (other than the governmental representatives in the ICPR), the negotiations and discussions at Convention on the Protection of the Rhine had a lot of involvement from non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The Aarhus Convention in 1998 also encouraged public participation and right to access information. The members of ICPR recognized that NGOs were “generally supportive of Rhine cleanup policies and often added helpful suggestions for more holistic ecosystem management… allowing these groups to play a larger role in the continued improvement of the river.” [8] Therefore, “observer status” was offered to the NGOs, which included environmental groups, representatives from industry and agricultural sectors, water users and water providers.
The EU Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) of 2000 was also incorporated into the Rhine River Basin water management plan. Aligning with similar objectives of Rhine 2020, the EU WFD reinforces the commitment of member states “to protect and enhance all natural surface, ground, coastal and estuarine waters and to achieve a good qualitative and quantitative status in 15 years with regulated water bodies to be developed to their ecological potential” [10]. The negotiation process also involved all relevant stakeholders: “During the six years of preparation of this European water policy, all interested parties, such as local and regional authorities, water users, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were invited to comment. In 1996 some 250 delegates attended a conference to conclude the process. Among the participants were representatives of member states, regional and local authorities, enforcement agencies, water providers, industry, agriculture, and not least, consumers and environmentalists.” [2].
Based on the Survey 2012, many of the objectives are on track to reach the target goals set forth in Rhine 2020, and progress will be continuously monitored. The ICPR and associated stakeholders will continue to be heavily involved to protect the water quality of the Rhine River.
Issues and Stakeholders
Water Quality/ Reducing Source Pollution to the Rhine River
NSPD: Water Quality, Ecosystems
Stakeholder Types: Sovereign state/national/federal government
Stakeholders:
- International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR)
- International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR)
- The International Meuse Commission (IMC)
- Representatives from the agricultural sector
- Environmentalist Groups
- Representatives from Industries
- Water users and water providers
Stakeholder Assessment Summary
| Stakeholder Group | Water Quality for Rhine Ecosystem | Adaptive Mgmt | Research and Education | Flood Prevention | Safe Drinking Water | Waste Disposal | Irrigation | Economic Growth |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (formerly: International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine Against Pollution) (ICPR) | High Priority | High Priority | Was an initial goal, but is no longer a direct goal for ICPR; however ICPR relies on research and education for decision-making | High Priority. This issue became important after flood of 1995; was not part of the Rhine Action Program, but is now part of Rhine 2020. | High Priority | Concerned because this directly affects the water quality of the Rhine ecosystem | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) | Not a direct goal of the Commission, but research from this group is used for the betterment of the Rhine ecosystem | High Priority | High Priority | Not a high priority, but contributes research to flood mitigation practices | Not a direct priority | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) | Not a direct goal of the Commission, but research from this group is used for the betterment of the Rhine ecosystem | High Priority | High Priority | Not a high priority, but contributes research to flood mitigation practices | Not a direct priority | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| The International Meuse Commission (IMC | High Priority | High Priority | High Priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority, but would be concerned because it would affect water quality | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| Environmentalist Groups | High Priority | Not a priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority, but would be concerned because it would affect water quality | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| Representatives from Industries | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a priority | High Priority; manufacturing facilities need to discharge wastes into the river | Not a priority | High Priority |
| Water Users and Water Providers | Not a direct priority, but would be concerned because it will impact safe drinking water | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a direct priority | High Priority | Not a direct priority, although water providers would need to ensure water from the river is treated properly to comply with drinking standards | Not a priority | Not a priority |
| Representatives from Agricultural Sector | Concerned about chloride pollution because it affects agriculture | Not a priority | Not a priority | Not a direct priority | Not a direct priority | Not a priority; agricultural sector discharges nutrients (i.e. phosphorus from fertilizers) into the river | High Priority | High Priority |
Detailed Summary of the International Commissions
| Organization | Participating Countries | Principle Concern(s) | Year Est. | Goals |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (formerly: International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine Against Pollution) (ICPR)[3]. | European Union, France, Germany, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Switzerland | Water quality, flood control/relief, joint management | 1950 |
|
| International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) [11]. | Switzerland, Austria, Germany, France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands | Research and education | 1970 | An organization where the scientific institutes of the Rhine riparian states formulate joint hydrological measures for sustainable development of the Rhine basin. Missions: 1) Expansion of the knowledge of the hydrology in the Rhine basin and 2) Contribute to the solution of cross-border problems. |
| The International Meuse Commission (IMC) [12]. | Germany, France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands | Water quality, research and education | 2002 |
|
Analysis, Synthesis, and Insight
Individuals may add their own Analysis, Synthesis, and Insight (ASI) to a case. ASI sub-articles are protected, so that each contributor retains authorship and control of their own content. Edit the case to add your own ASI.
Learn moreApplying the Water Diplomacy Framework to the Rhine River Basin on Water Pollution Control
The water quality program for the Rhine River Basin has been successful because the stakeholders promote information exchange, cooperation and consensus, there is trust, and there is a stable budget/ funding to implement the goals. Applying the Water Diplomacy Framework to this case, we can see why the Rhine Action Program was successful
(last edit: 20 May 2014)
Key Questions
Transboundary Water Issues: What considerations can be given to incorporating collaborative adaptive management (CAM)? What efforts have the parties made to review and adjust a solution or decision over time in light of changing conditions?
Collaborative Adaptive Management was utilized in formulating the Rhine 2020 plan. Specifically, the Rhine 2020 and EU Water Framework Directive were adopted after the Rhine Action Program ended, and the goals of Rhine 2020 were formed through evaluating the (then) current state of the ecosystem and water quality, and adjusting the management plans as necessary to reflect the changing conditions (i.e. including flood management goals as part of the Rhine 2020).
- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 [Uehlinger, U. et al., 2009. The Rhine River Basin. Rivers of Europe / Klement Tockner u.a. - London: Acad. Pr., 2009, pp. 199-245 - ISBN 978-0-12-369449-2 <http://www.researchgate.net/publication/30019497_The_Rhine_River_Basin/file/d912f50fa8eb874f80.pdf>].
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 [Leentvaar, Jan and Ine D. Frijters. Rhine Case Study. UNESCO-IHP, PCCP Series Publication. 2003. http://webworld.unesco.org/water/wwap/pccp/cd/pdf/case_studies/rhine2.pdf].
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 [IKSR. International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine. http://www.iksr.org/index.php?id=58&L=3&cHash=455fdab52ce6eafbf6f72632159564bf].
- ^ Brenner, T. et al. The Present Status of the River Rhine with Special Emphasis on Fisheries Development. FAO Corporate Document Repository. <http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad525e/ad525e08.htm>.
- ^ [Wetering, B. Management By Accident. International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine. http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/teia/doc/Sandoz/03_Management_by_accident_Rhine_Wetering_Eng.pdf>].
- ^ [Boos-Hersberger, Astrid. "Transboundary Water Pollution and State Responsibility: The Sandoz Spill." Golden Gate University School of Law 4. (1997): 103. LexisNexis Academic: Law Reviews. Web. 11 May 2014.].
- ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Mostert, Erik. "International Co-Operation On Rhine Water Quality 1945–2008: An Example To Follow?." Physics And Chemistry Of The Earth 34.Water History (2009): 142-149. ScienceDirect. Web. 11 May 2014.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Chase, S. 2012. There must be something in the water: An exploration of the Rhine and Mississippi Rivers’ Governing Differences and an Argument for Change. <http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/wordpress/wilj/files/2013/01/Chase.pdf>.
- ^ The Rhine Action Programme. European Environmental Inequalities. BBC News. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/int/geog/eei/rivers/rhine/strategies/info.shtml?strategies=1>.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Convention on the Protection of the Rhine. European Union External Action Service. Treaties Office Database. <http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/prepareCreateTreatiesWorkspace/treatiesGeneralData.do?step=0&redirect=true&treatyId=634>.
- ^ [International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin. <http://www.chr-khr.org>]
- ^ [International River Basin Organizations Data. Program in Water Conflict Management and Transformation. Oregon State University. <http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/RBO/RBO_Euro.html>]
| Area | 200,000 km² (77,220 mi²) + |
| Climate | temperate + and alpine + |
| Geolocation | 50° 26' 41.406", 7° 26' 6.2052"Latitude: 50.444835 Longitude: 7.435057 + |
| Issue | Water Quality/ Reducing Source Pollution to the Rhine River + |
| Key Question | What considerations can be given to incorporating collaborative adaptive management (CAM)? What efforts have the parties made to review and adjust a solution or decision over time in light of changing conditions? + |
| Land Use | industrial use + and mining operations + |
| NSPD | Water Quality + and Ecosystems + |
| Population | 58,000,000 million + |
| Stakeholder Type | Sovereign state/national/federal government + |
| Water Use | Agriculture or Irrigation +, Domestic/Urban Supply +, Fisheries - wild + and Industry - non-consumptive use + |
| Has subobjectThis property is a special property in this wiki. | Water Quality and Pollution Control in the Rhine River Basin + |
